Human babies as crocodile bait: hunting practices of the British in Colonial India

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A mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) under captivity in an Indian Zoo.

    

  The idea of using live human babies as crocodile bait may sound horrific, but the 19th century British hunters in colonial Sri Lanka and India found the idea so charming for big game hunting. A recent review of the 19th century records reveal that at least some British crocodile hunters during the colonial rule used live babies rented from the natives as bait to lure crocodiles.

Six injured Slender Lorises rescued from Bangalore city, black magicians suspected

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Slender Loris (Loris lydekkerianus)
Image Courtesy: Kalyan Varma

Wildlife smuggling rackets and black magicians are on the prowl in Bangalore, hints recent wildlife rescues from the city. Officials were able to save six severely injured Slender Lorises- a slow-moving, nocturnal primate- in the last two months. All of them are suspected to be smuggled into the city and were tortured by black magicians.

According to People for Animals (PFA), an NGO involved in rescuing animals, all the rescued Lorises were injured in a specific way. The activist of the NGO alleges that the nature of the wound found on these rescued animals show that they are being used by black magicians. Kishan C H, General Manager of the Bangalore chapter of People for Animals told the media that the animals are injured in the most barbaric way. According to reports, the animals were in bad shape with their arms or legs crushed or cut off.

This smallest primate, found only in India and Sri Lanka, is targeted by black magicians and folk medicine practitioners for the belief that the animal has special powers and medicinal properties.  “The belief is that whatever is inflicted on the animal will in turn happen to the person's enemy," said Kishan.

The NGO was able to spot the animals from different parts of the city. While some of them were reportedly found from a farm house near Nelamangala, one was taken to a veterinary hospital first and later reached PFA. Rescuers were able to find two of the animals at Shivajinagar. Despite the rescue efforts, three out of the six rescued animals were not able to survive. The other three were later returned to the wild with the help of forest officials, said PFA sources.

Smuggling Slender Loris

It is suspected that the trucks carrying wood from the outskirts of the city would have been used to smuggle Slender Loris at least in Shivajinagar, since it is the major center for carpentry in the city. According to M Nagaraj, Forest Range Officer, South Bangalore, the forest officials have noted that the use of Slender Loris for black magic is turning rampant in the city. “We have already come across six instances in two months. We have not made any arrests yet but are keeping a close watch on it”, he said.

Experts suspect that tribes are being paid for catching the animals and handing over to smuggling rackets. It was earlier reported that tribes are paid by photographers to catch Slender Loris to photograph it.

Eight new endemic frog species discovered from Central Highlands World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka

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Sri Lankan researchers have identified and described eight new frog species from the Peak of Wilderness sanctuary region which comes under the Central Highlands World Heritage Site in Sri Lanka during an amphibian survey in the island nation recently. According to a research paper published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa, all the newly described frog species belong to Pseudophilautus genus of Sri Lankan endemic frogs.

Bambaradeniya’s Shrub Frog
(Pseudophilautus bambaradeniyai)

According to the researchers who have conducted the study, all the new frog species has a combination of unique features which make them distinctive from other known species of the genus and easily identifiable in the field. 

Since the records are new and many of them are spotted from only one location so far- from the sanctuary situated in the Ratnapura district in Sabaragamuwa province of the island nation- all the new species except one(Pseudophilautus newtonjayawardanei)  is considered as Critically Endangered as per IUCN criterion, says the paper. Organisms with an extent of distribution of less than 100 square kilometers in habitats under severe threats are categorized as Critically Endangered categories.

New Bush frogs in Sri Lanka

Bambaradeniya’s Shrub Frog (Pseudophilautus bambaradeniyai), a small sized frog, found in forests at elevations ranging from 750 to 1400 MSL, usually rests on the forest floor or on shrubs with a height of about 1.5 meters, says the study. This frog inhabits lowland rain forests and lower montane rain forests.

Dayawansa’s Shrub Frog
(Pseudophilautus dayawansai)

Apart from a dark brown dorsal area with black blotches, this frog has and a blackish cross between the eyes. The off-white stripe on the back is also very prominent in this frog, according to the study. However, the colour of dorsum may change to orange to lighter brown while the thickness of the line on the back may vary from organism to organism. The species was named bambaradeniyai, after Channa Bambaradeniya, a wetland scientist, for his extensive works to wetland conservation and conservation attempts.

Dayawansa’s Shrub Frog (Pseudophilautus dayawansai), is a small bush frog with blackish brown colouration. Its colour pattern is very different from its close relatives. Sometimes, the blackish brown tint can vary from reddish-brown to lighter brown shades, according to the paper. The most preferred habitat is cloud forests at an elevation of 1550-1900 MSL. They are usually found on the forest floor or on bushes of up to 2 meters height.

Apart from several morphological differences, the frog species also reportedly has three prominent blackish-brown circular spots among which two are situated between eyes. The frog was named after Nihal Dayawansa, a senior lecturer in the University of Colombo for his contributions to amphibian research in Sri Lanka.

Jagath Gunawardana’s shrub frog
(Pseudophilautus jagathgunawardanai)

Another newly described species, Pseudophilautus jagathgunawardanai, has a combination of different morphological characters which makes it different from its close relatives. With the unique patterns and markings on the dorsum of this light brown frog with a greenish tint, P. jagathgunawardanai is also an inhabitant of cloud forests at 1600 to 1750 MSL elevations, like P. dayawansai. Though it may be spotted on the forest floor, these frogs often prefer to be on tree trunks with lichens. Named after Jagath Gunawardana, a Sri Lankan naturalist for his conservation efforts, the frog is also known as Jagath Gunawardana’s shrub frog.

Yet another new frog species, Pseudophilautus karunarathnai, has unique colour patterns which make it easily identifiable in the field. Named after Y.G.P. Karunarathna, retired Assistant Director of Sri Lankan Wildlife Conservation Department, for his efforts to bring down human-wildlife conflict, the frog has a dorsal portion of uniform cream colour with dark brown or light brown blotches and a dark brown cross between the eyes.

Karunarathna’s Shrub Frog
(Pseudophilautus karunarathnai)

Known as Karunarathna’s Shrub Frog, it is found in lowland rain forests and lowland montane rain forests. It either rests on forest floor or on shrubs of 1.5 meter height. Interestingly, this frog species can also be found at places with less canopy cover, like home gardens, says the study.

Pseudophilautus newtonjayawardanei, is a bronze coloured frog with dark brown patches and an off-white vertebral stripe on its body. The species has a pair of broad dark brown longitudinal dorsal bands which starts from the back of the eye running to the groin region. Named after surgeon naturalist Newton Jayawardane, it is found in forest canopy in high altitudes. The researchers were able to find just two specimens of this rare frog which usually sits on leaves of trees with 8 meters height at forests of 1800 to 2000 MSL elevation.

Newton Jayawardane’s Shrub Frog
(Pseudophilautus newtonjayawardanei)

Pseudophilautus puranappu,  the only one among the newly found to be named after a freedom fighter, is named to honour Veer Puran Appu who revolted against the British colonial forces in the pre-independent days of the island nation. The frog species has a unique faint stripe between eyes with light greenish tinge on laterally. The species also has a maroon coloured hour-glass shaped broad patch running from snout to vent. Also known as Puran Appu’s shrub frog, the species can be seen perching on rocks under shades during day time. They can be also found on bushes with 1 meter heights during night. They can be found in forests of elevation ranging between 1800 to 2100 MSL.

The newly christened Samrakoon’s Shrub Frog (Pseudophilautus samarakoon) has a very prominent dark brown ‘M’ shaped patch on its anterior which makes it distinct in the field. Moreover, it has a dark brown band between the eyes. Moreover, there is a combination of other morphological differences which makes this frog distinctive from its close relatives. This new species got its name from the Assistant Director of the Wildlife Department, Ananda Vijith Samarakoon for his efforts to orient the wildlife officers training to optimize the conservation efforts.

Puran Appu’s Shrub Frog (Pseudophilautus puranappu)

Samrakoon’s Shrub Frog (Pseudophilautus samarakoon)

 Found at elevations of 1000 to 1400 MSL, Samarakoon ‘s shrub frog inhabits lower montane rain forests and prefers to perch on bamboo plants near forest streams or on shrubs with up to 2 meters of height. These species can be found along with P. bambaradeniyai sp. and P. karunarathnei sp. According to the researchers, the frogs can be easily found in abundance near the starting point of Kaluganga River.

Pseudophilautus sirilwijesundarai, is a multi-coloured frog with dark brown dorsal area with greenish tinge and maroon blotches. It has prominent maroon cross bands on its fingers and toes. Named after Siril Wijesundara  who is the Director of Royal Botanical gardens, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka,  is again inhabits montane cloud forests of 1600 to 1700 MSL elevation. These frogs, according to the researchers, are usually found on the canopy on tress of even up to 10 meter tall. They are often found with mosses, says the study.

Threats to Herpatofauna in Sri Lanka

Siril Wijesundara’s Shrub Frog
(Pseudophilautus sirilwijesundarai)

However, there are multiple threats to the endemic amphibian fauna in Sri Lanka, say the researchers. Sripada Peak, the area from the newly described species are reported is a major pilgrim centre. The pilgrim tourism in this area and the resulting garbage and pollution is seriously damaging the fragile ecosystem of the area. Moreover, illegal gem mining on the banks of the Kalaganga River and illegal felling of trees in the forests to expand the adjoining tea plantations also is a major threat to the endemic amphibian diversity in the area, says the study.

Pseudophilautus is a genus of amphibians which include direct developing rhacophorids (also known as bush frogs or shrub frogs which are found in Asian and African regions). However, concerns are rife that the genus is facing survival threat as almost 17 species of the 65 species known from the genus are never again recorded after their initial discovery and are considered as already vanished.

According to researchers, this rich biodiversity spot may still have organisms yet unknown to science, since the population surveys in these are scarcely conducted due to difficult terrain, heavy rainfall and inaccessibility.

L.J. Mendis Wickramasinghe, Dulan Ranga Vidanapathirana, M.D. Gehan Rajeev, S. Chathuranga Ariyarathne, A.W. Amila Chanaka, L.L. Dharshana Priyantha, Imesh Nuwan Bandara and Nethu Wickramasinghe of Herpetological Foundation of Sri Lanka, Hendala, Wattala, Sri Lanka have co-authored the study.